Notes
The Renaissance
- A revival of classical learning began in wealthy Italian city-states with patrons like the Medici. Humanism focused on human potential and classical study.
- Artists like Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael used realism and perspective. Machiavelli wrote The Prince.
- Gutenberg's printing press (about 1450) spread ideas quickly and raised literacy.
The Reformation
- Luther's Ninety-Five Theses (1517) attacked indulgences. Protestants stressed faith and the Bible. Calvin taught predestination; Henry VIII created the Church of England.
- The Catholic Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) answered. Religious wars ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648).
Exploration and its effects
- Motives: God, gold and glory. Technology: caravel, compass, astrolabe.
- Portugal reached India by sea; Columbus reached the Americas for Spain (1492).
- Cortés and Pizarro conquered the Aztec and Inca with the help of disease, allies and weapons.
- The Columbian Exchange moved crops, animals and diseases. Mercantilism and plantations drove the Atlantic slave trade.
Topics in this unit
Each topic has its own short notes and practice.
Practice
About 1455, 1517, 1521, 1648.
Thousands of copies of Luther's ideas circulated within weeks.
Humanists celebrated human potential and classical learning.
Smallpox and other diseases killed huge numbers before and during the conquests.
Mercantilism used colonies to enrich the home country.
Millions of people were forcibly moved, reshaping three continents.
Free response
Write your answer first, then open the scoring guide.
Free-response question
In the 1500s, new ideas and new contacts changed Europe and the wider world.
(a) Identify TWO causes of the Protestant Reformation.
Show the answer and scoring guide
The Church sold indulgences and some clergy were corrupt. Also, the printing press spread Luther's criticisms quickly, and many princes wanted independence from the pope.
Check off the points you earned:
(b) Explain ONE way the Catholic Church responded to the Reformation.
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At the Council of Trent, the Church reaffirmed its teachings and stopped the sale of indulgences. New orders like the Jesuits founded schools and sent missionaries to win new members.
Check off the points you earned:
(c) Explain how the Columbian Exchange affected BOTH the Americas and Afro-Eurasia.
Show the answer and scoring guide
European diseases like smallpox killed millions of Indigenous Americans, while horses and cattle changed American life. American crops like potatoes and maize helped populations in Europe and Asia grow.
Check off the points you earned: