Notes
Voting
- Amendments expanded voting: the 15th (race), 19th (women), 24th (banned poll taxes in federal elections), and 26th (age 18).
- Voting models: rational choice (what benefits me), retrospective (judging past performance), prospective (expected future performance), and party-line voting.
- Turnout is affected by age, education, income, state laws (voter ID, registration deadlines), competitiveness, and whether it's a presidential or midterm election (midterm turnout is lower).
Political parties
- Parties recruit candidates, mobilize voters, write platforms, and organize government.
- The U.S. has a two-party system because of winner-take-all (single-member district) elections. Third parties rarely win but can raise issues the major parties later adopt.
- Realignment happens when party coalitions shift (the New Deal coalition). Candidate-centered campaigns and technology have changed parties' roles.
Interest groups and social movements
- Interest groups lobby, file lawsuits, donate through PACs, and mobilize members. Some face the free-rider problem (people benefit without joining).
- Iron triangles link agencies, congressional committees and interest groups.
- Social movements (civil rights, women's suffrage) use protests and public pressure.
Elections and campaigns
- Primaries and caucuses pick nominees; the Electoral College picks the president (270 of 538 electoral votes). Most states are winner-take-all, so candidates focus on swing states.
- Incumbents usually win Congress elections because of name recognition, fundraising and constituent service.
- Campaign finance: Citizens United v. FEC (2010) ruled that political spending by corporations and unions is protected speech, leading to super PACs. Hard money goes to candidates with limits; soft money was restricted by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002).
The media
News media act as a gatekeeper (deciding what's news), scorekeeper (tracking who's ahead), and watchdog (investigating officials). Social media, partisan news and the decline of local news shape what voters know and can increase polarization.
Practice
Ratified in 1971 during the Vietnam War.
They judge past performance.
Third parties rarely win a plurality.
This makes it harder for groups to recruit.
It led to super PACs.
Incumbency advantage is large, especially in the House.
Watchdogs hold officials accountable.
Fewer people vote when the presidency isn't on the ballot.
Free response
Write your answer first, then open the scoring guide.
Free-response question
Voter turnout among 18- to 24-year-olds has often been lower than among older adults.
(a) Describe ONE reason younger citizens might vote at lower rates.
Show the answer and scoring guide
Young people move often and may not be registered at their current address, and they may feel elections don't affect them.
Check off the points you earned:
(b) Explain ONE policy a state could adopt to increase youth turnout, and how it would work.
Show the answer and scoring guide
Same-day or automatic voter registration removes the registration barrier, so eligible young people can vote even if they recently moved.
Check off the points you earned:
(c) Explain how a political party might try to increase turnout among young voters.
Show the answer and scoring guide
It could use social media outreach and campus registration drives and take positions on issues young voters care about, like college costs.
Check off the points you earned: