Notes
The gunpowder empires
| Empire | Region | Key facts |
|---|---|---|
| Ottoman | Anatolia, Middle East, Balkans, North Africa | Sunni; captured Constantinople (1453); devshirme system trained Christian boys as Janissaries and officials |
| Safavid | Persia (Iran) | Shia Islam as the state religion; conflict with the Sunni Ottomans |
| Mughal | South Asia | Muslim rulers over a Hindu majority; Akbar practiced religious tolerance; built the Taj Mahal |
| Qing | China | Manchu rulers kept Confucian bureaucracy and the civil service exam |
| Russia | Eastern Europe and Siberia | Expanded east; tsars controlled the nobility; Peter the Great westernized |
- These empires expanded using gunpowder weapons (cannons, muskets).
How empires ruled
- Bureaucracies and tax collection: the Mughal zamindar system collected taxes from land; the Ottomans used tax farming.
- Legitimacy: religion (Ottoman sultans as caliphs), monumental architecture (Versailles, the Taj Mahal), and divine right (Louis XIV).
- The Qing and Tokugawa Japan limited foreign influence; Japan restricted Christianity.
Belief systems
- The Protestant Reformation (Martin Luther, 1517) split Western Christianity. The Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent). Religious wars followed.
- Sikhism blended Hindu and Islamic ideas in South Asia.
- The Sunni-Shia split fueled Ottoman-Safavid wars.
Practice
Janissaries were loyal only to the sultan.
Religious differences fueled conflict with the Ottomans.
He abolished the tax on non-Muslims and encouraged dialogue among faiths.
It became Istanbul, the Ottoman capital.
The Manchu rulers adapted Chinese institutions.
He criticized the sale of indulgences.
Zamindars collected land revenue for the state.
Firearms helped them conquer and defend territory.
Free response
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Free-response question
Answer (a), (b) and (c).
(a) Identify ONE way the Ottoman Empire legitimized or consolidated its power.
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It used the devshirme system to build a loyal army (Janissaries) and bureaucracy, and the sultan claimed the title of caliph.
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(b) Identify ONE way the Mughal Empire legitimized or consolidated its power.
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Akbar's religious tolerance won support from the Hindu majority, and monumental architecture like the Taj Mahal displayed power.
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(c) Explain ONE reason religious differences caused conflict between empires in this period.
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The Sunni Ottomans and Shia Safavids each saw the other as a religious and political rival, leading to repeated wars over territory and faith.
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